Monolithic nanofluid sieving structures for DNA manipulation

ABSTRACT

A new technique for fabricating two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid microchannels for molecular studies includes fabricating a monolithic unit using planar processing techniques adapted from semiconductor electronics fabrication. A fluid gap between a floor layer ( 12 ) and a ceiling layer ( 20 ) is provided by an intermediate patterned sacrificial layer ( 14 ) which is removed by a wet chemical etch. The process may be used to produce a structure such as a filter or artificial gel by using Electron beam lithography to define a square array of 100 nm holes ( 30 ) in the sacrificial layer. CVD silicon nitride ( 54 ) is applied over the sacrificial layer and enters the array of holes to produce closely spaced pillars. The sacrificial layer can be removed with a wet chemical etch through access holes in the ceiling layer, after which the access holes are sealed with VLTO silicon dioxide ( 64 ).

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] The present application claims the benefit of ProvisionalApplication No. 60/115,854, filed Jan. 13, 1998, and entitled“Monolithic Nanofluid Sieving Structures for DNA Manipulation”, thedisclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

[0002] The present invention was made with Government support underGrant No. , awarded by . The Government has certain rights in theinvention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The present invention relates, in general, to methods offabricating fluidic devices and to structures produced by such methods,and more particularly to processes including the removal of sacrificiallayers for fabricating multi-level fluidic devices integrally with otherdevices on a substrate for interconnecting such devices.

[0004] The emerging field of fluidics has the potential to become one ofthe most important areas of new research and applications. Advances ingenomics, chemistry, medical implant technology, drug discovery, andnumerous other fields virtually guarantee that fluidics will have animpact that could rival the electronics revolution.

[0005] Many fluidic applications have already been developed. Flowcytometers, cell sorters, pumps, fluid switches, capillaryelectrophoresis systems, filters, and other structures have beendeveloped using a variety of materials and techniques in a wide range ofapplications, including protein separation, electrophoresis, massspectrometry, and others, have been developed. One of the goals ofworkers in this field is to develop a “total analysis system” whereinvarious structures are integrally formed on a single substrate, and forthis purpose a variety of techniques, ranging from siliconmicromachining to injection molding of plastics, have been developed.All of these prior techniques, however, have in common that fluidcapillaries are formed by bonding or lamination of a grooved surface toa cap layer, and in cases where multiple layers are present, theseresult from bonding together multiple substrates. Unfortunately, thedrive to develop complex fluidic devices in the environment of a totalanalysis system has been hindered by the inherent difficulties withlamination-based fabrication techniques. As more devices are integratedonto a single substrate, the connection of the devices requires thatconnecting fluidic tubes cross over each other. With bonding technology,two capillaries cannot cross without lamination of a second wafer to thebasic substrate. Further, the second wafer must be thick, resulting inlarge aspect ratio vertical interconnects, and ultimately resulting in alimit on miniaturization. If such devices were to reach mass production,alignment and bonding technology to handle the complex assembly wouldhave to be developed, and whatever technology is employed would in alllikelihood require costly redevelopment with each generation of smallermore complex fluidic devices.

[0006] One major application of fluidic devices is in the fabrication ofartificial gel media, which has been a topic of interest for some yearsfor scientific and practical reasons. Artificial gels differ fromconventional polyalcrylamide or agarose gels currently used for DNAseparation in that the sieving matrix in an artificial gel can bedefined explicitly using nanofabrication, rather than relying on therandom arrangement of long-chain polymers in the conventional gel. Assuch, the dimensions and topology of the artificial gel sieving matrixcan be controlled and measured precisely. This makes it possible to testtheories of DNA electrophoresis with fewer free variables. Artificialgels also have advantages over conventional gels in that conventionalgels are expensive and require skilled operators to prepare themimmediately before use, whereas artificial gels can be integrated withmass-produced microfabricated chemical processing chips and shipped in aready-to-use form.

[0007] However, previous methods for fabricating artificial gelsinvolved bonding a top layer, either glass or a pliable elastomericmaterial, to a silicon die with columnar obstacles micromachined intothe surface. Such methods have been successful for structures with fluidgap heights as small as 100nm, but it is difficult to establish auniform and predictable fluid gap between a silicon floor and a glass orelastomeric top layer. An elastomer layer, and in many cases even aglass layer, can flow between the retarding obstacles in the fluid gap,either closing the gap entirely or creating large variations in the gapheight. Both methods are sensitive to particulate contamination to theextent that a single particle can render an entire device unusable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0008] It is, therefore, an object of the invention to provide a methodfor fabricating multiple fluidic devices as a monolithic unit by the useof a sacrificial layer removal process wherein fluidic devices with oneor more layers can be fabricated by successive application and patternedremoval of thin films. Some of these films are permanent, and some aresacrificial; that is, they will be removed before the fabrication iscomplete. When the sacrificial layers are removed, the empty spaces leftbehind create a “working gap” for the fluidic device which can bevirtually any shape, and which can be configured to perform a number ofdifferent functions.

[0009] Another object of the present invention is to producenano-fabricated flow channels having interior diameters on the order of10 nm. Such nanometer-scale dimensions are difficult to attain withconventional micro-fluidic fabrication techniques, but the presentinvention facilitates fabrication at this scale while at the same timeproviding integration of such flow channels with other devices. Thesedevices can provide fundamental insights into the flow of fluids innano-constrictions and are useful in studying the behavior of biologicalfluids with molecular components similar in size to the cross-section ofthe channel. The process of the present invention permits the dimensionsof the flow channels to be adjusted, for example to manipulate andanalyze molecules, viruses, or cells, and the process has the potentialof producing structures which will reach currently unexplored areas ofphysics and biology.

[0010] Another object of the invention is to provide a multi-level fluidchannels fabricated on a single substrate with fluid overpasses andselective vertical interconnects between levels. Multi-level fabricationis a requirement for any complex fluid circuit, where fluid channelsinterconnect multiple devices on a single substrate, for withoutmultiple levels, interconnection of large numbers of devices is eitherimpossible or requires tortuous interconnect pathways. The availablelevel of sophistication of microfluidic devices is tremendously improvedby the capabilities provided by the present invention.

[0011] Briefly, the present invention is directed to procedures andtechniques for overcoming the inherent difficulties and limitations ofprior art laminar bonding approaches to fluidics fabrication andintegration of components. In one aspect of the invention, thesedifficulties are avoided in the fabrication of a monolithic fluidicdevice by utilizing a shaped sacrificial layer which is sandwichedbetween permanent floor and ceiling layers, with the shape of thesacrificial layer defining a working gap. When the sacrificial layer isremoved, the working gap becomes a fluid channel having the desiredconfiguration. This approach eliminates bonding steps and allows aprecise definition of the height, width and shape of interior workingspaces, or fluid channels, in the structure of a fluidic device. Thesacrificial layer is formed on a substrate, is shaped by a suitablelithographic process, for example, and is covered by a ceiling layer.Thereafter, the sacrificial layer is removed with a wet chemical etch,leaving behind empty spaces between the floor and ceiling layers whichform working gaps which may be used as flow channels and chambers forthe fluidic device. In such a device, the vertical dimension, or height,of a working gap is determined by the thickness of the sacrificial layerfilm, which is made with precise chemical vapor deposition (CVD)techniques, and accordingly, this dimension can be very small.

[0012] In order to provide access to the sacrificial layer contained inthe structure for the etching solution which is used to remove thesacrificial layer, one or more access holes are cut through the ceilinglayer, with the wet etch removing the sacrificial layer through theseholes. An extremely high etch selectivity is required between thesacrificial layer and the dielectric layers in order to allow the etchto proceed in the sacrificial layer a significant distance laterallyfrom the access holes without consuming the floor and ceiling layerswhich compose the finished device. One combination of materials thatmeets the requirements for such a process is polysilicon and siliconnitride, for the sacrificial layer and for the floor and ceiling layers,respectively. Extremely high etch selectivities can be obtained withbasic solutions such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide(NaOH), but especially with tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH). TMAHprovides an etch selectivity between silicon and silicon nitride as highas 1,500,000:1, with etch rates as high as 0.6 μm per minute.Additionally, the basic solution contains no metal ions and is thuscompatible with the CMOS CVD equipment used to deposit the thin filmsacrificial polysilicon layer and the thin film ceiling layer.

[0013] The access holes cut in the top layer need to be covered beforethe device can be used. For this purpose, a sealing layer of silicondioxide is deposited on top of the ceiling layer to fill in the accessholes, and this additional thin film layer provides a good seal againstleakage or evaporation of fluids in the working gap. SiO₂ CVD techniqueswhich yield a low degree of film conformality, such as very lowtemperature oxide (VLTO) deposition, form a reliable seal withoutexcessive loss of device area due to clogging near the access holes. Ifdesired, the access holes may be drilled through the bottom layer,instead of or in addition to the holes in the ceiling layer, and laterresealed by depositing a layer of silicon dioxide.

[0014] In one embodiment of the invention, wherein the process isutilized to fabricate artificial gels, a multiplicity of retardingobstacles in the form of vertical pillars are fabricated in a selectedportion of the sacrificial layer before the ceiling layer is applied.The obstacles are defined using standard photolithographic techniques.In another embodiment of the invention, electron beam lithography isused for this purpose, permitting the fabrication of obstacles severaltimes smaller than can be produced utilizing the photolithographictechniques.

[0015] In one example, lithography was used to define in the sacrificiallayer a filter chamber incorporating an artificial gel and connected toinlet and outlet fluid channels. In this process, an array of holes wasformed in a chamber region of the sacrificial layer, the holes beingabout 100 nm in diameter and separated by 100 nm in a square array, forexample. When the ceiling layer was applied, the ceiling material filledthe holes to form a multiplicity of pillars about 100 nm in diameter andseparated by 100 nm. The pillars extended through the sacrificialmaterial between the floor and ceiling layers, and when the sacrificiallayer was removed the pillars formed in the chamber region the verticalobstacles of an artificial gel. The chamber region had an active area800 μm by 500 μm, with connecting inlet and outlet flow channels, ormicrochannels, connected to opposite sides of the chamber to make amicrofluidic device 15 mm in length. The extra length provided by theinlet and outlet capillaries was provided in the example to allow fluidinterconnects to the device to be outside the footprint of an objectivelens used to observe material within the filter chamber, but any desiredinlet or outlet channel configurations can be used.

[0016] The interconnection of the fluid between external devices and theworking gap produced by a sacrificial layer, as described above,preferably is made by way of one or more loading windows and outletwindows on the top (ceiling) surface of the inlet and outletmicrochannels. These windows are defined with photolithography and areetched through the ceiling layer with RIE. They may be located at theouter ends of the microchannels, which may be near opposite edges of asilicon chip or substrate carrying the artificial gel.

[0017] In a typical use of an artificial gel device such as thatdescribed above, an aqueous buffer with fluorescent-labeled DNAmolecules in solution is supplied to the loading window from a fluidreservoir which forms a meniscus with the edge of the silicon chip, andafter passing through the gel the buffer is delivered to a reservoirconnected to the outlet window. A potential is applied across the gel bya voltage connected across electrodes immersed in the buffer reservoirs,and the applied potential difference drives the DNA molecules throughthe device, where their motion is observed with epi-fluorescencemicroscopy.

[0018] In another aspect of the invention, multiple fluidic levels areconstructed on a single substrate by repeated applications of thesacrificial layer technique. With this process, barriers between thelayers can be extremely thin, because the solid sacrificial layermechanically stabilizes the film during construction of multiple layerdevices. Each layer could potentially add less than 500 nm to thethickness of the device, with miniaturization being limited only byavailable lithographic or electron beam techniques. The fabrication ofmultiple-level devices is an extension of the single-level fabricationtechnique outlined above. The first level is defined exactly as in thesingle level system, but instead of perforating the ceiling layer toprovide access holes for sacrificial layer removal, holes are made inthe first level ceiling layer only where there are to be connections tothe second level. These vertical interconnect holes are made using thesame steps used for making access perforations. If no connections areneeded, then no interconnect holes are made in the first level ceilinglayer. Thereafter, a second sacrificial layer is deposited over thestructure, this layer having a thickness equal to the desired verticaldimension of a working gap in the second layer, and preferably beingbetween 30 nm and 1000 nm in thickness. Photolithography or electronbeam lithography is used to pattern the second sacrificial layer todefine a desired structure configuration, such as fluid-carrying tubesor microchannels, fluid chambers, or the like. The second levelstructure may be configured to pass over fluid microchannels that werepreviously defined in the first-level lithography step, and the firstand second level sacrificial layers may make contact with each otherwhere vertical interconnect holes breaching the ceiling of the firstlevel and intersecting the working gap defined by the sacrificial layerin the second level have been provided. Finally, the second levelceiling layer is deposited, in the manner previously described for asingle level device, and access holes are defined as before.

[0019] If desired, additional layers may be added by depositingadditional patterned sacrificial layers on prior ceiling layers in themanner described for the second level, and depositing additionalcorresponding ceiling layers. Thereafter, the sacrificial layers areremoved from all layers by a wet chemical etch, as previously described,producing a multiple-level fluidics structure. If all the layers arevertically interconnected through access holes, the sacrificial layerscan all be removed together. If they are not so interconnected, thesacrificial layer is removed by way of separate access layers, which maybe located at the edges of the multilevel device.

[0020] The unique approach to the fabrication of nanofluidic structuresin accordance with the present invention offers several advantages overprior processes. First and foremost is the integration of fluidicdevices with other devices, such as optical or electronic devices, on asingle substrate, without lamination or bonding steps. Such integrationcan be obtained by reason of the fact that the methods of the inventionrely on semiconductor manufacturing techniques and equipment already inexistence in the semiconductor manufacturing industry. The ability tocreate multi-level structures with vertical interconnections allowssignificant increases in integration and functionality, allowinglarge-scale integration of fluidic devices and permitting fabrication ofstructures which allow parallel processing and high speed analysis to beperformed. Since the technology is compatible with other fields ofmicrofabrication such as planar waveguide optics and silicon-basedmicroelectronics technology, not only can microfluidic components beintegrated with each other, but they also can be integrated on a singlewafer with other types of components or devices, such as those requiredfor analysis and data collection. The fabrication techniques of thepresent invention permit creation of extremely small features withexcellent control over dimensions and placement of devices andinterconnections so that microfluidic components will be comparable indimensions to macromolecules, facilitating the fabrication of complexbiochemical analysis systems.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0021] The foregoing, and additional objects, features and advantages ofthe present invention will become apparent to those of skill in the artfrom the following detailed description of preferred embodimentsthereof, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0022]FIGS. 1-3 are partial, diagrammatic, perspective views of theprocess of the present invention, FIG. 1 illustrating formation of apatterned sacrificial layer on a substrate, FIG. 2 illustratingformation of a ceiling dielectric layer over the sacrificial layer, withaccess holes, and FIG. 3 illustrating the steps of etching away thesacrificial layer and sealing the access holes.

[0023] FIGS. 4(a) and 4(b) diagrammatically illustrate the steps used infabricating a two dimensional artificial gel media on a wafer;

[0024]FIG. 5A is a scanning electron micrograph of an irrigation holeformed in the media of FIG. 1, after resealing by a VLTO oxide, thewafer having been cleaved through the center of the irrigation hole toprovide a cross-sectional view;

[0025]FIG. 5B is a scanning electron micrograph of a cleaved edge of adevice fabricated in accordance with FIG. 1, showing micron-sized tubes,or microchannels, buried beneath a silicon nitride layer;

[0026]FIGS. 6A, 6B and 6C are scanning electron micrographs showing thedimensions of three different fluid gap heights in a device fabricatedin accordance with FIG. 1;

[0027]FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram illustrating the operating principleof a sieving structure fabricated in accordance with the presentinvention;

[0028]FIGS. 8A and 8B are fluorescence optical micrographs showing DNAmolecules in an artificial gel fabricated in accordance with the presentinvention;

[0029]FIG. 9, Steps 1-9 are diagrammatic illustrations of a secondembodiment of a process for fabricating devices in accordance with thepresent invention;

[0030]FIG. 10 is a scanning electron micrograph of a resist layer afterelectron beam patterning and development in accordance with theembodiment of FIG. 9, Step 2;

[0031]FIG. 11 is a scanning electron micrograph of a device fabricatedin accordance with the process of FIG. 9, step 3, after transferring apattern of holes utilizing dry etching;

[0032]FIGS. 12A and 12B are scanning electron micrographs of the deviceof FIG. 9, Step 7, taken at 45° after removal of the sacrificial layers,FIGS. 12A and 12B showing the same structure at two differentmagnifications;

[0033]FIG. 12C is a diagrammatic illustration of a working gapcontaining closely-spaced pillars;

[0034]FIG. 13 is a photomicrograph of a completed wafer, illustratingloading and exit windows at opposite ends of the wafer;

[0035] FIGS. 14 diagrammatically illustrates a fluid interconnectionstructure for supplying fluids to devices fabricated in accordance withthe present invention;

[0036]FIG. 15 is a chart illustrating the velocity of two differencemolecule types for various applied potentials measured in apparatusfabricated in accordance with the present invention;

[0037]FIGS. 16-19 are diagrammatic illustrations of the steps of amethod for fabricating multiple level structures on a single substrate;

[0038]FIG. 19A illustrates a three-level structure on a single substratefabricated by the process of the present invention as illustrated inFIGS. 16-19;

[0039]FIGS. 20 and 21 are diagrammatic illustrations of examples ofmultiple sacrificial levels produced in the process of FIGS. 16-19;

[0040]FIG. 22 is a diagrammatic illustration of a sub-femtoliter mixingsystem fabricated by the multiple level process of the invention;

[0041]FIGS. 23-25 are diagrammatic illustrations of a step-edgedeposition process for fabricating ultra-small diameter capillaries;

[0042]FIGS. 26 and 27 illustrate a second process for fabricatingultra-small diameter capillaries;

[0043]FIG. 28 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an integratedmicrocapillary and waveguide device using the sacrificial layer processof the present invention;

[0044]FIG. 29 is an enlarged view of a portion of the device of FIG. 28.

[0045]FIG. 30 is a partial perspective view of an integrated electricalheating element in a fluidic system; and

[0046]FIG. 31 is a top plan view of the structure of FIG. 30.

DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0047] The basis of the fabrication techniques of the present inventionis the use of a pattern of sacrificial and permanent layers whichdefines the interior geometry of a fluidic device. To define thepotential of the technology, several fabrication methods an applicationsare described herein as embodiments of the invention. A single-level, ortwo-dimensional embodiment of the process illustrates the basic conceptscommon to additional embodiments and applications, thus serving as afoundation for more complex processes and structures. Accordingly, thefirst embodiment of the invention will be described in terms of aprocess for producing a single level fluidic structure. As will bedescribed, the process of the invention relies on techniques developedfor semiconductor fabrication. For example, chemical vapor deposition(CVD) may be used to deposit the device materials, including permanentwall materials which are usually a dielectric material such as siliconnitride or silicon dioxide, and nonpermanent sacrificial layermaterials, such as amorphous silicon or polysilicon. CVD is preferred,since it is ideally suited for precise control of the dimensions of afluidic device, providing excellent precision and uniformity in thethickness of the deposited films.

[0048] In broad outline, as illustrated in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3, the firststep in the process of the present invention is to deposit on asubstrate 10 a first layer 12 which will serve as the floor of thefluidic device being fabricated. The layer 12 may be a dielectricmaterial between 30 nm and 1000 nm thick which serves as a bottom wallfor the fluidic channels which are to be formed, and may be referred toas a permanent layer. A nonpermanent, or sacrificial layer 14 isdeposited next, with the thickness of this thin film layer controllingthe interior vertical dimensions of the final product. Films rangingfrom 5 nm to 10 μm may preferably be utilized for some products, but anydesired thickness may be provided. The geometry of the fluidic structurethat is to be fabricated, which structure may include fluid pathways,fluid chambers, sieves, filters, artificial gels or other components ofthe fluidic device, are then defined in the sacrificial layer 14 by asuitable lithographic process, which can include the steps of patterninga resist material, transferring the pattern to a pattern mask layer, andthen transferring the pattern to layer 14, in known manner. Processeswhich do not use a resist material, such as laser machining, may also beused to define the structures. For electron beam lithography and deepstructures made with photolithography, a hard pattern mask is requiredto assist in pattern transfer, and silicon dioxide or aluminum hardmasks may be used for this purpose, as is known in the art.

[0049] The fabrication of a fluid pathway in the form of a simple tube16 is shown in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3. As there illustrated, after the patternof the tube has been defined lithographically, unwanted portions of thesacrificial layer 14 are removed with reactive ion etching (RIE) toexpose portions of the top surface 18 of floor layer 12. The remainingsacrificial material defines the interior shape of the tube 16, asillustrated in FIG. 1. Thereafter, a top wall layer 20 is added,covering the top surface 18 of layer 12 where it is exposed around theremaining sacrificial material 14, and covering the exposed side wallsurfaces 22 and 24 and the top surface 26 of the tube 16, as illustratedin FIG. 2. This top wall layer 20 preferably is a dielectric thin filmdeposited by CVD techniques, and is also referred to as a permanentwall.

[0050] The removal of the sacrificial layer 14 from within thenow-covered tube 16 requires that a wet etch be able to get inside thetube. This can be done from the edge of the substrate if tube 16 extendsto that edge, or the top layer 20 may be perforated at intervals toallow access to the interior through layer 20, as illustrated by accessholes 30 in FIG. 2. An etchant such as tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide,which is used because it yields extraordinary selectivity forsacrificial layers of polysilicon or amorphous silicon over thepermanent bottom wall material 12 and the permanent top wall material20, is supplied through the ends of the tubes or through access holes 30to remove the sacrificial layer 14. Thereafter, the ends of the tubes orthe holes 30 are sealed by a layer 32 of a very low temperature oxide(VLTO) which is selected to have only moderate conformality. Thismaterial is desirable because it deposits as little oxide as possible onthe interior walls of tube 16 while still closing off the access holes30. Once the device is sealed, standard lithography and etchingtechniques are used to open loading holes, such as aperture 34, throughthe top layer 20 and the sealing layer 32 into tube 16 in appropriateplaces to enable the interior of the tube 16 to interface with anexternal fluid interconnect device. The fluid pathways and chambersproduced by the removal of the sacrificial layer 14 and exemplified bytube 16, may be generally referred to herein as the “working gap”, or“fluid gap” of the fluidic device.

[0051] The basic process steps of the invention are outlined in greaterdetail in a partial, schematic, perspective view in FIGS. 4(a) and 4(b)as including process steps 1-8. A three-inch (100) N-type silicon wafer40 was used as a substrate in this process. The silicon wafer servedonly as a carrier for the thin-film fluidic device, and any materialcompatible with a CMOS film deposition furnace could be used as asubstrate. The wafer was subjected to a conventional RCA cleaning step,and covered with a first, 420 nm thick bottom thin film layer 42 of lowpressure CVD (LPCVD) silicon nitride. Immediately following this, apolysilicon sacrificial layer 44 was grown over the silicon nitridelayer 40, the thickness of the polysilicon layer serving to establishthe height of the fluid gap in the final device. To investigate thebehavior of the process with different fluid gap heights, three waferswith different polysilicon sacrificial layer 44 thicknesses werefabricated: 120 nm, 280 nm and 530 nm. In each case, followingpolysilicon deposition, a thermal oxide hard mask 46 was grown on thesurface. The choice of thickness for the hard mask was made according tothe thickness of the polysilicon layer. For the thinnest polysiliconlayer, a mask layer of approximately 10 nm of SiO₂ was used. For thethicker polysilicon films, an 80 nm thick mask layer 46 was applied. Aphotoresist layer 48 was then applied to the top surface of layer 46.

[0052] A pattern 50 for a fluidic device having inlet and outlet tubes,or microchannels, (not shown) connected to a fluid chamber 51 (indicatedby dotted lines) defines in the resist layer 48 (Step 2) an array 52 ofretarding obstacles such as those that might be fabricated as anartificial gel or a sieve. The pattern 50 is produced using standardphotolithographic techniques. In one example, the pattern 50 for thearray 52 of retarding obstacles included a multiplicity of 1.0 μmdiameter cylindrical holes whose centers were separated by 2.0 μm. Thepattern of holes was transferred from the resist layer 48 to the oxidehard mask layer 46 with a CHF₃/O₂ RIE, and subsequently was transferredinto the polysilicon layer 44 (Step 3) using a three-step Cl₂/BCI₃ RIE.The holes making up the array 52 in the sacrificial layer were thetemplate in which the obstructing pillars were later formed.

[0053] In step 4, the wafer was again subjected to an RCA clean,followed by a final dip in 10:1 solution of 48% hydrofluoric acid and DIwater for 30 seconds to remove the oxide hard mask 46 from thepolysilicon surface. The wafer was rinsed, spin-dried and coated with anadditional 420 nm thick layer 54 of LPCVD silicon nitride (Step 5).Since LPCVD silicon nitride coats conformably, it coated the floor andwalls of the holes of array 52 cut in the polysilicon layer 44, thusforming obstructing pillars 56 in those holes. These pillars extendsubstantially the full thickness of layer 44 and contact the top surfaceof bottom wall 42.

[0054] Irrigation holes 60 were then defined in the top nitride layer 54(Step 6) using photolithography aligned to the previous layer. Aphotoresist pattern (not shown) masked a CF₄ RIE, which cut all the waythrough the silicon nitride top, or ceiling layer 54, exposing thepolysilicon layer 44 underneath. The photoresist was removed byimmersion in acetone, followed by a 10 minute O₂ plasma strip. Nativeoxide which formed during the oxygen plasma strip was removed with a 20second dip in hydrofluoric acid buffered 30:1 with ammonium fluoride.

[0055] The sacrificial layer 44 was then removed with a 5% solution ofTMAH in water heated to 80 C. The irrigation holes 60 wereconservatively placed 20 microns from each other. After 40 minutes ofimmersion in the hot TMAH, the polysilicon layer 44 was completelyremoved (Step 7), leaving a working gap 62 between the bottom wall 42and the top wall 54. No degradation of the silicon nitride layers 42 or54 was detected.

[0056] The wafer was again RCA cleaned and coated with a layer 64 ofvery low temperature oxide (VLTO) to seal the irrigation holes 62. For astructure with a working gap of 500 nm, a 1000 nm thick film sealinglayer 64 of oxide was deposited. For thinner structures, a 500 nm film64 was sufficient to seal the irrigation holes 60. Leaks in thestructures were readily detected by immersing the sealed wafer in wateror some other solvent. If a fluid channel contained a leak, it rapidlyfilled with liquid and a striking change in color was observed. Onewafer was soaked for 24 hours, and although some slow leaks were found,over 90% of the structures fabricated on the wafer remained dry.

[0057] The three wafers mentioned above each were coated with aprotective layer of photoresist and scribed with an automated diamondscriber through the centers of a row of pillars 56 and through anirrigation hole 60, as illustrated in the sectional views of Steps 1-8in FIG. 4. The photoresist was removed by spin-rinsing with isopropanol,acetone and isopropanol again. The wafers were cleaved, leaving theworking gap 62 and cross-sections of pillars 56 open to the outside attwo edges of each chip. The cleaved chips were annealed at 900 C for 40minutes with dry oxygen flow to grow an insulating layer 66 (FIG. 5A) ofthermal SiO₂ on the freshly cleaved edges.

[0058] The finished devices were inspected with white-lightinterferometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). FIG. 5A is ascanning election micrograph of a portion of a wafer, illustrating theworking gap 62, pillars 56, and irrigation hole 60 filled with oxide 64in a working chamber 51 for use as an artificial gel. No variation couldbe detected in the height of the working gap between the two nitridelayers. There was some polysilicon film loss associated with the growthand removal of the oxide hard-mask, so the final devices had fluid gapheights of 63 nm, 266 nm (illustrated in FIG. 5A), and 497 nm. There wassome sagging of the top nitride layer at the cleaved edges which tookplace during the 900° C. anneal step.

[0059]FIG. 5B is a scanning electron micrograph of a cleaved edge of awafer, illustrating a plurality of micron-sized tubes, or microchannels,such as the tube 16 of FIG. 3. FIGS. 6A, 6B and 6C are scanning electronmicrographs showing the dimensions of the working gaps for the threewafers discussed above. FIG. 6A is a micrograph of a wafer having afluid tube 16 with a working gap height of 497 nm, and without a VLTOsealing layer. FIG. 6B is an enlarged micrograph of the cleaved edge ofa working gap chamber of FIG. 5A, having a working gap 62 with a heightof 266 nm, and including a VLTO sealing layer 64. FIG. 6C is amicrograph of a cleaved edge of a working gap chamber, having a gap 62height of 63 nm.

[0060] To test the operation of an artificial gel chamber 51 fabricatedby the foregoing process, a Plexiglas jig 72 was fabricated (see FIGS.7A and 7B) which allowed the meniscuses of two overfilled bufferreservoirs 74 and 76 to make contact with the cleaved exposed edges 78and 80, respectively, of the chamber, and thus with the device's fluidgap (62 in FIG. 4). A silicon chip 82 cleaved from a wafer and bearingthe chamber 51 was affixed to the jig 72 with vacuum grease. A voltagesource 84 was connected across platinum electrodes 86 and 88, which wereimmersed in the buffer reservoirs 74 and 76, respectively, for driving acurrent through the chamber 51. The jig 72 and artificial gel chamber 51were mounted on the stage of an upright fluorescence microscope. Asillustrated, the artificial gel chamber 51 was a thin flat channelfabricated on the chip 82 in the form of a working gap, or fluid gapsuch as the gap 62, in which was located an array 52 of verticalsubmicron pillars, or obstructions 56 such as those described withrespect to FIG. 4, and illustrated in the enlarged partial view of FIG.7B.

[0061] λ-phage DNA was stained with YOYO-1 (Molecular Probes) to 1 dyemolecule (illustrated at 94) per 10 base pairs, and was diluted to 0.5μg/ml DNA in 0.5× tri-borate EDTA (TBE) buffer with 3% mercaptoethanoladded to prevent photobleaching. The solution including molecules 94 wasinjected in the cathode reservoir 74 of the sample jig 72, and voltagesranging from 0-20 V were applied across the 5 mm-long chamber 51. DNAmolecules 94 were observed to move electrophoretically through theartificial gel obstructions 56 in all three fluid gap heights, althoughin the smallest fluid gap height (63 nm) structures, the channel had anenhanced population of shorter molecules.

[0062] The motion of the DNA was observed in chamber 51 with a 100×0.9NA air immersion objective. Fluorescence was excited with a 50 W mercuryarc lamp with an excitation filter cutoff at 490 nm. FIG. 8A shows afluorescence micrograph of DNA molecules 94 moving through the chamber51 with an applied potential of 5 V. This region is free ofclosely-spaced obstructions, so the DNA molecules are moving freelyunder the influence of the electric field. The image was accumulatedover a 10-second interval, so the horizontal streaks in the picturerepresent the trajectories of the DNA molecules as they move from rightto left in the frame. The highlighted circles are the sealed accessapertures 60. FIG. 8B shows a portion of the boundary between chamber 51with densely spaced retarding obstacles 56 and a region of the assembly72 prior to the obstacles. In this image, some molecules have becometrapped at the threshold 96 of the obstructed region, while othersproceed.

[0063] The process steps for a second embodiment of the fabricationprocess of the invention, utilizing electron beam lithography, areoutlined schematically in FIG. 9. Three-inch (100) N-type siliconwafers, indicated at 110 in Step 1 of FIG. 9, were used as a substratein this process. The silicon wafers served only as carriers for thethin-film devices; any material compatible with CMOS film depositionfurnaces could be used as a substrate. The wafers were subjected to anRCA clean and a 1.0 μm thick film 112 of a permanent wall material suchas a thermal silicon dioxide was grown in the surface. After oxidation,a 190 nm thick permanent film 114 of low-stress LPCVD silicon nitridewas deposited, followed by a nonpermanent sacrificial layer 116 formedas a 500 nm thick film of LPCVD polysilicon. A 100 nm thick hard masklayer 118 was thermally grown in the polysilicon layer 116, and a 40 nmthick film 120 of aluminum was thermally evaporated over the oxide hardmask to assist in pattern transfer and provide a conductive substratefor electron beam lithography (EBL). Finally, a 200 nm thick film 122 of496 K PMMA resist material was spin-coated over the aluminum and bakedfor 10 minutes at 170° C. on a vacuum hotplate.

[0064] To pattern the resist layer 122, electron beam lithography wascarried out (Step 2) to form a mask pattern 124, using a Leica-Cambridge10.5 at 1.0 nA and a spot size of 70 nm for the fine features, and 40 nAfor the coarse features. The dot dose was 18 fC. To avoid shape overheadprocessing time, the dots were written “on-the-fly” without beamblanking between dots. For these exposure times, the beam shift andsettling time are fast enough that there are no artifacts in the dotshape from the beam movements. The resist 122 was developed for 1.5minutes in 1:1 MIBK:IPA, rinsed in IPA and blown dry with filtered drynitrogen. FIG. 10 is a scanning electron micrograph which shows theresist pattern 124 in a dense pillar region after it has been patternedand developed.

[0065] The resist pattern 124 was transferred to the aluminum layer 120(Step 3) with a chlorine (Cl₂) boron trichloride (BCl₃) and methane(CH₄) reactive ion etch (RIE). The aluminum mask was then used topattern the SiO₂ hard mask layer 118 with a CF₄ etch. Finally, the SiO₂hard mask was used to pattern the polysilicon sacrificial layer 116 witha three-step RIE¹² with Cl₂, BCl₃ and H₂. At this point, the sacrificiallayer 116 was fully patterned with a dense array 125 of obstructions inan active area 126 (such as the chamber 51 previously described) of thedevice (FIG. 11), as well as with the channels required to bring fluidto the active area of the device. FIG. 11 is a scanning electronmicrograph showing the sacrificial layer 116 after the RIE transfer ofpattern 124 is complete. The isolated holes 128 in the sacrificial layerwill later become isolated obstructions in the gap after the top layeris deposited and the sacrificial layer removed, as was described abovewith respect to the first embodiment.

[0066] The sample was again RCA-cleaned and dipped in a 1:10 dilution ofhydrofluoric acid in deionized water for 20 seconds to remove the SiO₂hard mask layer 118 (Step 4). The wafer was rinsed and spin-dried andthe sacrificial layer was covered by a permanent top wall material suchas a layer 130 of 320 nm thick low-stress LPCVD silicon nitride (Step5). The top wall material 130 is selected to be extremely conformal, soin addition to coating the top surface of layer 116, it also coats thesidewalls and floor of each of the holes 128 etched in the sacrificiallayer 116. This deposition creates columns, or pillars 132 of siliconnitride or other top wall material buried in the sacrificial layer 116By regulating the thickness of layer 116 and the diameter of the holes128, each column may have an aspect ratio (height to width) of about5:1. To remove the sacrificial layer 116, access holes 134 werephotolithographically defined in a Shipley 1813 positive photoresistlayer (not shown) deposited on the top wall layer 130, using a 5× g-linereduction stepper and standard exposure conditions. The access holeswere 2 μm in diameter, in a square array with a 20 μm period. The resistwas developed in 1:1 Shipley MF312:deionized water for 1 minute. Theaccess holes 134 were transferred to the silicon nitride top layer 130(Step 6) with a CF₄ RIE. The photoresist layer was stripped in Shipley1165 photoresist remover. The wafer was subjected to an O₂ plasma stripto remove any residual photoresist.

[0067] Prior to the removal of sacrificial layer 130, the wafer wasdipped in hydrofluoric acid buffered 6:1 with ammonium fluoride toremove any native oxide which may have formed during the O₂ plasmastrip. The sacrificial layer removal (Step 7) was performed with a 5%TMAH solution in water maintained at 75 C with a temperature-controlledhot-plate. For both cost and convenience, the TMAH solution used wasactually a photoresist developer, Shipley MF312. In 40 minutes thesacrificial layer removal was complete, leaving a working gap 140 inplace of the sacrificial layer between top and bottom walls 130 and 114.The devices were rinsed in running deionized water for an hour and blowndry with filtered dry nitrogen. FIGS. 12A and 12B are scanning electronmicrographs taken at a 45° angle and at different magnifications,showing the dense array of pillars 132 in active region 126 of thedevice after the sacrificial layer removal. The pillars 132 areobstructions in the fluid flow path through the active area 126 of theartificial gel, or filter, and have vertical sidewalls and uniform sizeand separation. The uniformity of the pillar height at this stage isbetter than 5 nm over the device.

[0068]FIG. 12C is a diagrammatic illustration of the active area 126 ofthe working gap, showing closely spaced vertical pillars 132 extendingthrough fluid or working gap 140 between a lower floor layer 114 and aceiling layer 130. Since the layers 114 and 130 preferably are opticallytransparent, the movement of molecules or particles through the workinggap 140 and between the obstacles, or pillars, 132 can be monitored andmeasured optically, as will be described.

[0069] To seal the access holes, a 2.5 μm film of VLTO oxide 142 wasgrown over the silicon nitride top layer 130 (Step 8). The devices werechecked for leaks by immersion in DI H₂O. When a device is not fullysealed, it rapidly fills due to capillary forces. This is readily seeneven with the naked eye, because the thin film stack changes color whenthe gap fills with water. The devices were found to have sealed withoutany leakage.

[0070] To test the operation of an artificial gel fabricated naccordance with the foregoing process, photolithography was used todefine loading windows 144 and 146 at the ends of the device (Step 9) asillustrated in the scanning electron micrograph of FIG. 13. A 5 μm thicklayer of Shipley 1045 resist was patterned with a g-line 5× reductionstepper. The resist was developed for 4 minutes in Shipley MF312 diluted1:1 with deionized water. The loading windows 144 and 146 were etchedmost of the way through the 2.5 μm thick film 142 of VLTO with amagnetron induction etch (MIE) using CHF₃ as the etch gas. The wafer wasthen scribed for later cleavage with the photoresist still in place. Theetching of the windows 144 and 146 was completed with a much slower CHF₃RIE. The resist was removed with acetone and isopropanol on aphotoresist spinner.

[0071] Fluid interconnects were established with the front face of thedevice in locations which would not interfere with the microscopeobjective used to observe the motion of molecules through the activeregion 126, where the obstructions are closely spaced to provide anartificial gel configuration. A separate interconnect “package” wasmanufactured for each device and permanently bonded to it. Such apackage is generally indicated at 150 in FIG. 14 as being connected to awafer 152 carrying an active region 126. Fluid channels 154 and 156 weredefined between two 24×50 mm No. 1 cover slips 158, 160, and 162, 164,respectively; using silicone RTV. The channels 154 and 156 wereconnected to corresponding loading windows 144 and 146, respectively,through holes 168 and 170 machined in coverslips 158 and 162. The fluidchannels 154 and 156 were connected to corresponding 1 cm diameter Pyrexreservoirs 172 and 174 that were bonded with RTV over correspondingholes 176 and 178 in the top cover-slips 158 and 162. The reservoirscontained gold electrodes 180, 182 connected across a voltage source(not shown) to drive a current through the device. The reservoirs alsoserved as receptacles for loading the solution which contains materialto be passed through the region 126. The motion of molecules or the likethrough region 126 was observed by fluorescence microscopy, using, forexample, an optical microscope having a 100×, 1.4 N.A. oil immersionobjective lens 190 and an image-intensified CCD camera (not shown).

[0072] To demonstrate the use of these microchannel devices, twodifferent types of DNA were introduced into the reservoirs, a potentialdifference was applied, and the velocities of the molecules through theregion 126 were measured. To allow simultaneous observation of twodifferent DNA molecule types using a single fluorescent dye, moleculessufficiently different in size were chosen so that the identity of themolecules could be determined by the fluorescence yield in the opticalmicroscope. For this demonstration, 43 kilobase (kb) lambda phage DNAand 7.2 kb M13mp8 phage were observed simultaneously. Both molecules areplasmid DNA, but the lambda DNA has been cut into a linear strand, whilethe M13mp8 DNA is still circular. The two types of DNA were both stainedwith YOYO-1 (Molecular Probes) at a concentration of 1 dye molecule per10 base pairs and then diluted to 0.5 μg/ml DNA in 0.5× tris-borate EDTA(ethylenediamene tetra-acetic acid) buffer with 2% mercaptoethanol addedto prevent photobleaching. The solution was injected at both reservoirs.

[0073] Although the silicon devices 152 have hydrophilic interiors andthus spontaneously fill with liquid when submerged, when they weresealed into the fluid interconnect package, trapped air prevented thewater column from reaching the device. For this reason it was necessaryto load the devices under vacuum. Even with vacuum loading, some bubbleswere incorporated, but because the buffer solutions were degassed duringthe vacuum pumping, most bubbles trapped in the device dissolved intothe buffer and were eliminated. DNA velocities were recorded for appliedpotentials ranging from 2-20 V across the 15 mm-long channel. Thevelocity was measured by recording the time required for individualmolecules to traverse a 100 μm section of the dense pillar region 126.

[0074] Observations of the two different strand lengths were madeside-by-side and at the same time. To minimize the effect of boundaryclogging, the field was periodically reversed, and occasionally thepotential was increased briefly to assist molecules stuck at theboundary in overcoming the entropic barrier to entering the dense pillarregion 126. The velocity comparison between the two strand types wasreliable at a given potential because both molecule types wereexperiencing the same field. The M13mp8 DNA molecules were observed tohave a significantly lower velocity than the larger lambda phage DNA forapplied potentials of 5, 7, 10 and 15 volts. At 20 volts there wasevidence that the dielectric insulating layers had failed and that thedevice was being short-circuited by conduction through the substrate.FIG. 15 is a chart showing the velocity as a function of appliedpotential for both molecule types studied here. Each data point is themean of several single-molecule observations. The ratio of velocitieswas largest for an applied potential of 5 volts, for which the lambdaphage DNA moved 1.8 times faster than the M13mp8 phage DNA

[0075] The error bars for each data point reflect the standard deviationof the single molecule observations. As such, the deviation reflects onband-broadening mechanisms that would determine the resolution in DNAseparation. Other processes, such as field fluctuations and measurementerrors, will also contribute to the variation in the measurements, sothe resolution figure extracted from the distribution should beinterpreted as a lower bound on the intrinsic resolution of the process.Taking h/2σ as the resolution, where h is the band separation and σ isthe half-width of the band, this system shows a resolution of 118 perroot-meter between the two molecule types working at 7 volts.

[0076] In a third embodiment of the invention, multi-level microchanneldevices may be constructed utilizing the techniques described above. Theprocess for fabricating such devices is an extension of the single-levelfabrication techniques which have been described above, and thisextension is illustrated in FIGS. 16-19, to which reference is now made.FIG. 16 illustrates a first stage in the fabrication of a multi-levelmicrochannel device 200 formed on a wafer, or substrate 202. A bottomlayer 204 of a permanent material such as an oxide or other dielectricmaterial is deposited on the substrate, and a sacrificial layer 206 isdeposited on the bottom layer, as described with respect to FIG. 1.Following patterning of the sacrificial layer 206, a layer 208 isapplied, as previously described, providing a first ceiling layer forthe working gap, or microchannel that will be provided when thesacrificial layer 206 is removed. In this case, however, instead ofperforating the ceiling layer 208 for removal of the sacrificial layer,as previously described, one or more vertical interconnect holes orapertures 210 may be provided in layer 208 where a vertical connectionis to be made between the sacrificial layer 206 and correspondingsacrificial layers on second or subsequent levels. The verticalinterconnect holes 210 are made using the same steps outlined above formaking access holes for sacrificial layer removal, but are located so asto be aligned with corresponding structures in a second level. The layer208 is optically transparent, and thus is of a suitable material such assilicon dioxide.

[0077] In the illustrated embodiment, instead of removing thesacrificial layer 206, a second sacrificial layer 212 is deposited onthe top surface of the ceiling layer 208, in the manner previouslydescribed, and as illustrated in FIG. 18. This second sacrificial layer212 is deposited to a thickness of between 30 nm and 1000 nm, andphotolithography or electron beam lithography is used to pattern it, inthe manner described above. FIG. 18 illustrates the second patternedsacrificial layer as including structural components in the form of twogenerally parallel tubes, or microchannels 214 and 216 on top of layer208, with one tube 214 passing over the vertical interconnect hole 210and the other passing over microchannel 206 in an area where there is nohole 210. The first and second sacrificial layers 206 and 212 makecontact with each other where the vertical interconnect holes breach thefirst level ceiling layer 208, as at hole 210, but are otherwiseseparated by layer 208. If desired, all structural components of thesecond layer may be in contact with corresponding components of thefirst layer; alternatively only some may be in contact throughselectively placed vertical interconnect holes, or there may be nocontact between layers.

[0078] As illustrated in FIG. 19, a second level ceiling layer 220 isdeposited over the top of the wafer to cover the components defined inthe second sacrificial layer 212. If this is the last layer to beprovided, then appropriate access holes as well as loading and exitapertures will be defined as previously described. If additional layersare desired, as illustrated in FIG. 19A, additional verticalinterconnect holes may be provided in the layer 220 at selectedlocations, followed by a third sacrificial layer 221 and a third levelceiling layer 222. Additional layers may be provided as desired, and thefinal layer may be provided with irrigation access holes for removal ofthe sacrificial layers on all levels through the microchannels andvertical interconnect holes. Alternatively, the sacrificial layers maybe accessed individually by fabricating tubes which intersect edges ofthe wafer.

[0079]FIGS. 20 and 21 diagrammatically illustrate the selectableseparation and interconnection of the sacrificial layers 206 and 212 byselecting the location of the vertical interconnect holes 210. FIG. 20illustrates the crossing of the sacrificial material which will formmicrochannels 206 and 216 on two adjacent levels, where there is noconnection between the two sacrificial layers, while FIG. 21 illustratesthe crossing of microchannel 212 on one level over microchannel 206 onan adjacent level, illustrating the connection 222 extending throughvertical interconnect hole 210. FIGS. 20 and 21 show the microchannelswith the permanent layers removed for purposes of illustration, but itwill be understood that when the layers 204, 208, and 220 are in place,the sacrificial material defining microchannel 206 will be isolated fromthe sacrificial material defining microchannel 212, while the materialin microchannels 206 and 214 will be interconnected through connector222. When the sacrificial layers are removed, the top and bottompermanent layers in each level remain, leaving hollow fluid flowmicrochannels, with fluid in channel 206 being able to flow into channel214, but not into channel 216, in the illustrated example.

[0080] The multi-level fabrication technique described with respect toFIGS. 16-21 has many applications. As an example, it may be used toconstruct a 2-level combinatorial chemistry reactor such as thatgenerally illustrated at 230 in FIG. 22. The reactor 230 includes, forexample, 6 input microchannels 232 through 237, each of which passesover (or under, if desired) a single outlet, or drain microchannel 240,without interconnection, as illustrated at the intersection 242. Theseoverpasses are fabricated in a manner similar to the fabrication ofmicrochannels 206 and 216, described above and illustrated, for example,in FIG. 20. Each of the input channels is also connected to the drain240 by way of interconnects such as that illustrated at 244, eachinterconnect being fabricated in the manner described with respectmicrochannels 206 and 214, illustrated in FIG. 21, for example. Thedrain 240 leads to an outlet, indicated by arrow 245, while the inputchannels 232-237 all lead to a common reaction chamber 246 which, inturn, is connected to a fluid outlet microchannel 248. Voltages appliedat any of the fluid terminals of the device will induce flow in thesystem via electroosmosis.

[0081] In the operation of a typical device, a steady flow of fluid ismaintained from each of the 6 input microchannels to the drainmicrochannel 240 by maintaining the outlet 245 of the drain at a lowpotential. This serves, for example, to prevent cross contamination ofthe fluids in each of the input channels by creating a small, constantflow from each of the inputs 232-237 to the drain outlet 245. The drainline 240 passes under (or over) all six of the fluid input microchannelsand makes a vertical interconnect with each channel upstream from thereaction chamber 246, as at interconnect 244. Multiple levels arerequired for this device, since it is topologically impossible toprovide a common drain for multiple channels in a single level.

[0082] To inject fluid from one of the input microchannels 232-237 tothe reaction site 246, a higher voltage is applied to the selected inputchannel so that fluid flows to both the drain 240 and the reaction site246 for that channel. With this arrangement, reagents supplied throughthe input channels can be kept only a few microns from the reaction site246 and at the same time remain clean. The device illustrated in FIG. 22is a prototype for a general purpose reactant mixing system, but naturalextensions of this concept will permit mixing of reagents in any orderand any time sequence, and will allow the injection of heat and light atany point in the device through the optically transparent ceiling layer.Any substance that can be synthesized using only liquid ingredients andmodification by heat and light could be produced in sub-femtoliterquantities in a device of this type, utilizing the microchannels of thepresent invention.

[0083] Another application of the process of the present invention isthe fabrication of microchannels having widths and heights as small asabout 10 nm. The controlled fabrication of channels in the form of tubeswith such dimensions opens new prospects for science, since the physicalcharacteristics of fluid columns and such thin channels will bedifferent from those in conventional capillaries. Decreasedvolume-to-surface to-surface-area ratios for small channels means thatthe interaction between the channel walls and the fluid will be moreimportant, and surface effects will be crucial factors in fluid flow.

[0084] Although advanced electron beam lithography can be employed toproduce structures having lateral dimensions as small as about 20 nm,two methods for providing microchannels with lateral and verticaldimensions smaller than 10 nm are available using the techniques of thepresent invention. The first method uses thin film deposition over astep edge so that the lateral dimensions of the microcapillary aredetermined by the thickness of the film. A second technique uses thermaloxidation of polysilicon to reduce the dimensions of a microchannelwhich has been defined using conventional lithography.

[0085]FIGS. 23, 24 and 25 illustrate a step edge deposition techniquefor fabricating a nanometer scale capillary, or nanochannel. In FIG. 23,a substrate 260, which preferably is a dielectric material such assilicon nitride or silicon dioxide, is patterned, by photolithography orelectron beam lithography, and is etched with RIE to produce one or moreridges 262. Such a process provides corners on the ridges having nearatomic sharpness, with the ridges having substantially verticalsidewalls. Thereafter, a sacrificial layer 264 of a conformal thin filmof CVD polysilicon or amorphous silicon is coated over the patternedsilicon base 260. Films as thin as 10 nm can be deposited to a tolerancesmaller than 1 nm, and the thickness of the film can be used to controlthe vertical dimension of a channel in the manner described above in theprevious embodiments. The layer 264 is deposited to a substantiallyuniform thickness except in the corners at the bases of the ridges 262,where the layer accumulates to a greater thickness. In order toestablish the lateral dimension of the capillary, a subsequent unmaskedRIE is used to remove the film 264 everywhere except where the step inthe substrate has caused an increase in the thickness of the film. Thisis illustrated in FIG. 24 by the small amount of film material 266remaining at the base of each of the ridges 262 after the RIE step. Thisremaining material 266 forms thin sacrificial wires that extend alongthe bases of each of the ridges and since the film thickness controlsthe width of the wire and the RIE etch depth controls its height, bothdimensions of the wire can be controlled to dimensions smaller than 10nm.

[0086] Thereafter, a ceiling layer 270 is deposited over the top surfaceof the substrate 260, covering the ridges 262 and the sacrificial wires266. Perforations are provided in the layer 270 to permit access to thewires 266, and the sacrificial layer is removed by a wet etch process aspreviously described. Thereafter, the access holes are closed by asealing layer to provide enclosed nanochannels. The perforations forremoval of the sacrificial layer preferably are made at the ends of thetubes to prevent clogging during the sealing.

[0087] A second method for producing nanochannels is illustrated inFIGS. 26 and 27, wherein oxidative restriction is used to reduce thesize of a sacrificial polysilicon or amorphous silicon wire patternedonto a flat surface. In this process, a wire 280 is formed by depositinga sacrificial layer of polysilicon or amorphous silicon on the topsurface of a silicon base 282. The layer has a thickness ofapproximately 40 nm, and is patterned by conventional electron beamlithography to a lateral dimension of about 40 nm. Thereafter, thepatterned wire 280 is subjected to thermal oxidation to reduce the widthand height of the wire by consuming silicon from the surface to form asilicon dioxide coating 284, leaving the reduced wire 280 (FIG. 27). Theoxide 284 can then be removed, or left in place to serve as thecapillary wall and the application of ceiling layers, (if desired),perforations and removal of the sacrificial layer are performed aspreviously described.

[0088] Capillaries having dimensions on the order of 10 nm fabricated byone of the above-described techniques may be used for a wide variety ofpurposes. The dimensions of the tube are so small that single moleculesensitivity is required to detect flourescent molecules. The dimensionsof such channels are comparable to the average pore size of other porousmaterials such as gels, and such channels could thus be used as a filterto remove larger molecules from solution. Since the techniques describedpermit fabrication of channels with a specific depth or width,sophisticated filters can be designed.

[0089] A feature of the process of the present invention is that itprovides a technique for interconnecting fluidic structures and devicesnot only with each other, but with non-fluidic devices which maybefabricated on a common substrate using compatible materials andprocedures. One such application of the process described herein is theprovision of a microchannel-based fluid flow system having integratedplanar waveguide optics on the same substrate as the fluidic circuitry.Such a unified structure is of vital interest in the development ofcomplex analysis systems on a single chip which will require not onlymanipulation of fluids but also acquisition and processing of data. Notonly is the method of fabricating an integral waveguide structurecompatible with the microfabrication process of the invention, but thesmall dimensions of the fluidic channel fabricated by the presentprocess provides significant advantages over prior optical detectionsystems for fluid channels. For example, the integral structure and thesmall size reduces fluorescence background to a degree that will allow,for the first time, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) ofsamples at near biological concentrations, thereby opening thepossibility of applying FCS as an analytical tool directly to biologicalfluids.

[0090] An example of a microchannel fluidics system with integratedwaveguide optics is illustrated at 300 in FIGS. 28 and 29. The system300 includes a glass substrate 302 on which is deposited a sacrificiallayer 304 which is patterned in the shape of a microchannel 305, in themanner described above. A dielectric ceiling layer 306 is placed overthe patterned sacrificial layer 304; thereafter, a planar waveguide 308is fabricated in the ceiling layer using conventional photolithographicor electron beam lithography techniques as discussed above. The highrefractive index ceiling material 306 serves as the optical guidemedium. The waveguide is a ridge of the dielectric material 306 formedby etching grooves 310 and 312 on each side of the waveguide 308 duringthe same etching step in which perforation holes are defined in theceiling layer 306 for use in removing the sacrificial layer. When theperforations are resealed (as described above), the lower refractiveindex resealing layer also fills in the grooves 310 and 312 and coversthe top surface of the waveguide 308, so that this material surroundsthree sides of the waveguide and serves as a cladding for it. The lowerindex glass substrate 302 provides the fourth wall for the waveguide.Light injection into the waveguide can be obtained directly by endcoupling from a light source on the chip, as indicated by arrow 314 inFIG. 28, or can be obtained by patterning a diffractive coupler grating316 in one of the CVD layers.

[0091] With the foregoing fabrication technique, the waveguide 308 isaligned to intersect the microchannel 304 (See FIG. 29), with theintersection of the two micron-sized fluidic and optical elementsdefining an interaction region 320 having a sub-femtoliter volume. Theoptical waveguide may be used to provide light excitation to fluorescentsolutions carried in the microchannels 304, as for use in fluorescencecorrelation spectroscopy.

[0092] The fabrication of the waveguide proceeds as follows. In a firststep, a layer of 250-300 nm thick undoped polysilicon is deposited on afused silica substrate. Fused silica is used because of its index ofrefraction, its low defect density, its absence of backgroundfluorescence and its compatibility with CMOS processing rules. Thepolysilicon is capped with a 100 nm thick layer of thermally grownsilicon oxide to be used as a hard mask during the pattern transfer ofthe first lithography step.

[0093] The first lithography step is used to define the future shape ofthe microfluidic portion of the device. In one embodiment, the tube is10 micrometers wide across most of the length of the device except inthe interaction region where it is narrowed to 1 micrometer. High aspectratios are directly possible with this method; aspect ratios of up to100:1 have been demonstrated. The photolithography is performed on anI-line stepper with final resolution of 0.5 micrometer in 1.2 microns ofphotoresist. The pattern is then transferred to the silicon oxide hardmask in a short CHF₃/O₂ dry etch. The resist is then stripped in a 15minutes O₂ plasma by a barrel etch. The polysilicon is finally patternedusing a Cl₂/BCl₃/H, plasma RIE. This plasma is used to get a highselectivity between oxide and silicon, which avoids overetching into thesubstrate.

[0094] After this, the device is covered by a 1.1 micrometer thickceiling, or top layer of PECVD silicon dioxide. The temperature andpower of the system are tuned to obtain a layer of slightly out ofstoichiometry oxide with a refractive index around 1.52. It is thislayer that will form the core of the ridge waveguide that will be usedfor light delivery. All other layers will have a lower index. Because ofthe lower temperature at which this process is run, special care for thecleanliness of the sample is extremely important.

[0095] Once this ceiling layer has been deposited over the patternedsacrificial polysilicon layer, the second level of lithography isperformed. The ridge waveguide and the access holes are patterned in twomicrometers of photoresist. The access holes are the holes that will beused to give TMAH access to the sacrificial polysilicon during the finalremoval step. The pattern is then transferred into the PECVD oxide usingagain the CHF₃/O₂ plasma RIE. In this step, overetching is not an issuewhile underetching would prove catastrophic to the device. Thephotoresist is stripped clean, using a sulfuric/water solution, and anew level of photolithography is performed, this time defining thegratings that will be used to couple light from the laser to thewaveguide. After that, the sample is immersed in a hot bath of TMAH for6 hours to remove the polysilicon and to produce the working gappreviously described. The etch rate of the sacrificial layer ofpolysilicon in TMAH is lower than the bulk value because of itsconfinement in the microchannel system. The process is partially limitedby the time it takes for the chemicals to renew themselves by diffusionout of the capillaries.

[0096] In a final deposition step, a 1.5 micrometer thick sealing layerof VLTO oxide is deposited by CVD. This oxide will reseal the accessholes and cap the waveguide with a layer of index 1.46, VLTO oxide,which is particularly convenient since the low temperature of theprocess (475° C.) minimizes the application of thermal stress to thesystem, and the partial conformality of the VLTO furnace guarantees agood seal of the access holes. At this point, the system is completelysealed and the working gap cavities are closed.

[0097] The final lithography step is to etch final access holes at theextremities of the working gap cavities. For this, 10 micrometers ofphotoresist is patterned with two large (500 micrometers by 500micrometers) holes that are etched through the sealing layer and thetop, or ceiling layer, to intersect the microchannel in the usualCHF₃/O₂ plasma RIE. The photoresist is then stripped in an O₂ plasma andthe device is ready for use.

[0098] The foregoing fluidics and optical waveguide system 300 addressessome of the limitations of conventional fluorescence correlationspectroscopy (FCS). First, for a channel having a cross-sectionaldimension of 0.1×0.1 micrometers, and a mode size at the output of thewaveguide of 1.5 micrometers, the interaction volume 320 is as small as15×10⁻¹⁸ liters. This is well below the limits of classical optics towhich FCS is subjected. Both the background noise and the average numberof molecules in the interaction volume are significantly decreased,compared to conventional FCS, and the decreased interaction volume meansthat the average number of molecules in it is significantly decreased.This opens to FCS a new range of reactions to fluorescence correlationspectroscopy studies.

[0099] The confinement of a molecule inside a microchannel presentsanother advantage, for since the flow is fully constrained in thechannel, all of the solution is probed. Thus, no molecule will escapedetection by diffusing out of the interaction region. This decreasesmeasurement time while maintaining statistical accuracy of themeasurement. This is of crucial importance in single moleculesequencing, where the probability of a false negative must be maintainedas low as possible.

[0100]FIGS. 30 and 31 illustrate another example of the use of theprocess of the present invention in the fabrication of an integratedsystem 350, wherein an electronic device 352, such as an electricalresistance which may serve as a heater or a sensor, is incorporated in amicrochannel structure 354. The system 350 is fabricated on a substrate356 on which is deposited a floor layer 358 of a permanent material suchas a suitable dielectric oxide. The resistor element 352 is positionedon the substrate, and a sacrificial layer 360 (illustrated by dottedlines) is deposited on layer 358, and is patterned as described above toform two chambers 362 and 364, inlet and outlet microchannels 366 and368, and connector microchannel 370 extending between chambers 362 and364. The chamber 362 is further patterned to include an array of holes372. Thereafter, a ceiling layer 374, partially cut away in theillustration of FIG. 30 and omitted from FIG. 31, is deposited over thepatterned sacrificial layer and over the portion of layer 358 exposed bythe patterning of the sacrificial layer. The ceiling layer enters theholes 372 to form closely spaced pillars in chamber 362. Finally, thesacrificial layer is removed, as previously described, to form themicrochannel structure 354 between the floor and ceiling layers 358 and374, respectively. The pillars form obstacles to fluid flow throughchamber 362, acting as a sieve or an artificial gel filter for fluidflowing through the system. The resistor element is located in chamber364 and is in contact with the fluid.

[0101] The present invention provides a new ability to design and buildintegrated fluidic and optical circuits and provides the opportunity fornew approaches to single molecule studies, polymer dynamics, and fluiddynamics. The multilevel microfluidic system is integrated on a singlechip and represents a significant contribution towards a fullyintegrated chemical reactor. The nanochannel described herein creates anopportunity to study mesoscopic phenomena in solutions and can be usedto study the behavior of macromolecules in confined spaces. The presentinvention also provides the ability to guide light with integratedoptics in the same system as a fluidic system to enable photo-detection,photo-chemistry and spectroscopy to be integrated with complex fluidicand electronic systems, leading to the possibility of a wide range ofanalytical devices on a single chip. Although the invention has beendescribed in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent thatnumerous modifications and variations may be made without departing fromtrue spirit and scope thereof, as set forth in the following claims.

1.-24. (Cancelled).
 25. A method of forming a fluidic system, the methodcomprising: forming a patterned sacrificial layer on a substrate;forming a ceiling layer on the patterned sacrificial layer; and removingthe patterned sacrificial layer.
 26. The method of claim 25 wherein thesubstrate comprises a floor layer forming a floor of the fluidicdevices.
 27. A method of forming a fluidic system, the methodcomprising: forming a patterned sacrificial layer on a substrate;forming a ceiling layer on the patterned sacrificial layer; formingaccess holes through the ceiling layer to the patterned sacrificiallayer; and removing the patterned sacrificial layer via the accessholes.
 28. The method of claim 27 wherein the fluidic system is definedby the ceiling layer and substrate.
 29. The method of claim 27 whereinthe substrate comprises a floor layer forming a floor of the fluidicsystem.
 30. A method of forming fluidic systems, the method comprising:forming a patterned sacrificial layer on a substrate; forming a ceilinglayer on the patterned sacrificial layer; forming access holes throughthe ceiling layer to the patterned sacrificial layer; removing thepatterned sacrificial layer via the access holes; and covering theaccess holes such that the fluidic systems are defined by the ceilinglayer and substrate.
 31. The method of claim 30 wherein the substratecomprises a floor layer forming a floor of the fluidic systems.
 32. Themethod of claim 30 wherein the ceiling layer comprises a dielectricmaterial.
 33. The method of claim 30 wherein the sacrificial layercomprises amorphous silicon or polysilicon
 34. The method of claim 30wherein the fluidic systems comprise channels.
 35. The method of claim30 and further comprising forming further fluidic devices on top of thealready formed fluidic systems and forming interconnects therebetween.36. The method of claim 30 wherein the layers are formed using chemicalvapor deposition.
 37. The method of claim 30 wherein the sacrificiallayer is removed by providing an etchant through the access holes. 38.The method of claim 37 wherein the etchant comprises tetramenthylammonium hydroxide.
 39. A method of forming fluidic devices, the methodcomprising: depositing sacrificial layer on a substrate;lithographically patterning the sacrificial layer; depositing a ceilinglayer on the patterned sacrificial layer; forming access holes throughthe ceiling layer to the patterned sacrificial layer; etching thepatterned sacrificial layer via the access holes; and oxidizing theaccess holes.
 40. A method of fabricating a fluidic system, comprising:depositing a floor layer supported by the surface of a substrate;depositing a sacrificial layer on the surface of the floor layer;defining in the sacrificial layer the boundaries of a fluid chamberworking gap; and defining within the boundaries of the fluid chamber amultiplicity of holes extending through said sacrificial layer to thedielectric floor layer; depositing a ceiling layer to cover thesacrificial layer, wherein the ceiling layer is deposited in themultiplicity of holes to define retarding obstacles in the working gap;and removing the sacrificial layer from between said floor layer andsaid ceiling layer to produce said working gap having the retardingobstacles.
 41. The method of claim 40, wherein removing the sacrificiallayer includes etching the sacrificial layer between the retardingobstacles in the working gap such that the retarding obstaclessignificantly influence the motion of molecules.
 42. A semiconductorprocessing method of forming a nanochannel, comprising: depositing athin film silicon sacrificial layer on a substrate; patterning the thinfilm silicon sacrificial layer to define a sacrificial channel havingthe shape of a desired nanochannel; depositing a ceiling layer to coverthe sacrificial channel; and removing the sacrificial channel from underthe ceiling layer to produce a nanochannel.
 43. The method of claim 42wherein the sacrificial layer has a thickness between approximately 30nm and 1000 nm.
 44. A method for fabricating a multilevel fluidicdevice, comprising: forming a first floor layer; depositing a firstsacrificial layer on a first surface of said floor layer; patterningsaid sacrificial layer to define in the sacrificial layer the shape of adesired fluid working gap; depositing a ceiling layer to cover saidsacrificial layer, forming a layer of fluidic channels; forming afurther independent layer or layers of fluidic channels using ceilinglayers as floor layers for each successive layer of fluidic channels;forming selective vertical interconnects between fluidic channels indifferent layers; and removing said sacrificial layers to producemultilevel working gaps wherein at least one of the sacrificial layersis a silicon material.
 45. The method of claim 44 wherein fluidicchannels in different layers pass across each other.
 46. The method ofclaim 44 wherein the fluidic channels are similar in size to molecularcomponents that flow through the fluidic channels.
 47. The method ofclaim 44 wherein surface effects of the fluidic channels are significantfactors in fluid flow through the fluidic channels.
 48. The method ofclaim 44 wherein the obstacles are approximately 100 nanometers indiameter.
 49. The method of claim 44 wherein the sacrificial layer isdeposited using chemical vapor deposition.
 50. The method of claim 44wherein the sealing layer is deposited using a low conformalitydeposition process.